Assessment of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Dynamics Using Multivariate and Geospatial Approaches in Himachal Pradesh, India
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.52151/jae2026632.2000Keywords:
correlation matrix, geographical information system, inverse distance weighting method, principal component analysis, soil fertility mapsAbstract
This study evaluated soil fertility at the experimental farm of the Regional Horticultural Research and Training Station, Jachh, Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, India. A total of 78 soil samples, collected during 2023 from 0-30 cm depth, were analyzed to determine soil physico-chemical properties i.e., pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (OC)], macro-nutrients [i.e., nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)], micro-nutrients [i.e., iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn)]. Further, soil nutrient index was computed and soil fertility distribution map was generated using the inverse distance weighting method in the geographic information system. Soil pH ranged from 6.25 (slightly acidic) to 7.69 (slightly alkaline) with the mean of 7.01. EC was low (0.09 to 0.52) indicating non-saline soil with suitability for all crops. Soil OC ranged from 0.45% (medium) to 1.59% (high), though moderate variability was observed due to differences in land use/land cover and soil management. Available N was deficient (125.44 to 282.40 kg ha-1), whereas P and K were medium (12.38 and 156.02 kg ha-1, respectively) to high (110.27 and 418.18kg ha-1, respectively), suggesting imbalanced nutrient availability. Fe (4.50-18.77mg kg-1) and Cu (0.20-3.87mg kg-1) were in adequate quantities; however, Zn showed medium status (0.66-10.82 mg kg-1) with high variability, and Mn was deficient (0.87-6.35mg kg-1). Soil nutrient index indicated low fertility for N (1.35), high for OC (3.35), P (3.68), and K (3.17), and medium to high (1.86 to 3.27) for the micro-nutrients. Correlation matrix revealed significant relationships among pH, OC, macro-nutrients, and micro-nutrients, indicating that the common soil factors influence the nutrient distribution. Principal component analysis identified Fe, K, Zn, EC, pH and N as the key indicators, explaining 72.3% of the total variance. Overall, the study highlighted a good soil reaction and micro-nutrient status but emphasized on the need for improved N and Mn management to sustain soil fertility and crop productivity.
Downloads
References
Alloway, B. J. (2008). Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition (2nd ed.). International Zinc Association & International Fertilizer Industry Association, Brussels/Paris.
Anonymous. (2011). Methods Manual, Soil testing in India. Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. 208 p.
Aweto, A. O. (1982). Variability of upper slope soils developed under sandstones in South-western Nigeria. Georgian Journal, 25, 27-37.
Binkley, D., & Fisher, R. F. (2013). Ecology and Management of Forest Soils (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 440 p. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119455745 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119455745
Black, C. A. (1965). Methods of Soil Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, 1572p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr9.1
Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R. (2016). The Nature and Properties of Soils (15th ed.). Pearson Education, New York. 1172 p.
Cichota, R., Vogeler, I., & Snow, V. O. (2006). Spatial variability of soil properties and its implications for precision agriculture. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 44, 221–234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/SR06096
Das, P. T., Saikia, B., Lakiang, T., Majaw, R. M., & Saiborne, I. B. (2022). District wise soil fertility mapping from soil health card data using GIS in Meghalaya. International Journal of Scientific Research and Engineering Development, 5(4), 687-692. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.7067234
ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute). (2016). ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10.5. Redlands, CA, USA: Environmental Systems Research Institute.
Fageria, N. K., Baligar, V. C., & Clark, R. B. (2002). Micronutrients in crop production. In: D. L. Sparks (Ed), Advances in Agronomy (vol. 77, pp.185-268), Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(02)77015-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(02)77015-6
Gomez, K. A., & Gomez, A. A. (1984). Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Gupta, A. P. (2005). Micronutrient status and fertilizer use scenario in India. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 18(4), 325-331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2005.04.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2005.04.003
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis. Pearson.
Havlin, J. L., Tisdale, S. L., Nelson, W. L., and Beaton, J. D. (2014). Soil Fertility and Fertilizers: An Introduction to Nutrient Management (8th ed.). Pearson Education. 528 p.
Huang, B., Sun, W., Zhao, Y., Zhu, J., Yang, R., Zou, Z., Ding, F., & Su, J. (2007). Temporal and spatial variability of soil organic matter and total nitrogen in an agricultural ecosystem as affected by farming practices. Geoderma, 139(3-4), 336-345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.02.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.02.012
IBM Corp. (2017). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. IBM Corp., Armonk, NY.
Jackson, M. L. (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Jolliffe, I. T. (2002). Principal Component Analysis (2nd ed.). Springer Series in Statistics. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/b98835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/b98835
Khadka, D., Lamichhane, S., Amgain, R., Joshi, S., Vista, S. P., Sah, K., & Ghimire. N. H. (2019). Soil fertility assessment and mapping spatial distribution of Agricultural Research Station, Bijayanagar, Jumla, Nepal. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science, 8(3), 237- 248. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.566551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.566551
Khadka, D., Lamichhane, S., Giri, R. K., Chalise, B., Amgain, R., & Joshi, S. (2020). Geostatistical based soil fertility mapping of Horticultural Research Station, Rajikot, Jumla, Nepal. Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 3(2), 257-275. https://doi.org/10.3126/janr.v3i2.32513 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/janr.v3i2.32513
Kumar, M., Panwar, N. R., Pandey, C. B., & Jatav, M. K. (2015). Spatial distribution of available nutrients in the potato growing areas of Banaskantha district of Gujarat. Potato Journal, 42(2), 130-136.
Lal, R. (2004). Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science, 304, 1623–1627. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1097396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1097396
Li, J., & Heap, A. D. (2014). A review of spatial interpolation methods for environmental scientists. Environmental Modelling & Software, 53, 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2013.12.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2013.12.008
Lindsay, W. H., & Norvell, W. A. (1978). Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Science Society of American Journal, 42(3), 421-428. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1978.03615995004200030009x DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1978.03615995004200030009x
Lindsay, W. L. (1979). Chemical Equilibria in Soils. John Wiley & Sons.
Maini, R., Sharma, S., Sharma, J. C., & Verma, S. (2020). Identification of key soil quality indicators using principal component analysis under different land-use systems in the low hill region of Himachal Pradesh. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 68(2), 179–188.
Mandal, A. K., & Sharma, R. C. (2009). Computerized database of salt affected soils for Peninsular India using GIS. Geocarto International, 24(1), 64-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106040801966829 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10106040801966829
Mengel, K., Kirkby, E. A., Kosegarten, H., & Appel, T. (2001). Principles of Plant Nutrition (5th ed.). Springer Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-1009-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-1009-2
Mikkelsen, R. L. (2018). The importance of potassium management for horticultural crops. Indian Journal of Fertilizers, 13(11), 82-86.
Millaleo, R., Reyes- Diaz, M., Ivanov, A. G., Mora, M. L., & Alberdi, M. (2010). Manganese as essential and toxic element for plants: transport, accumulation and resistance mechanisms. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 10(4), 470-481. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162010000200008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162010000200008
Mishra, A., Pattnaik, T., Das, D., & Das, M. (2014). Soil fertility maps preparation using GPS and GIS in Dhenkanal district, Odisha, India. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science, 3(8), 986-994. https://doi.org/10.9734/IJPSS/2014/9325 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/IJPSS/2014/9325
Nazir, G., Sharma, V. K., Suri, D., & Anjali. (2021). Depth-wise fertility status of cultivated soils in low and mid hill regions of Himachal Pradesh. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 3(2), 22-30. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2021/v33i230411 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2021/v33i230411
Olsen, S. R., Cole, C. V., Watanabe, F. S., & Dean, L. A. (1954). Estimation of available phosphorus in soil by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. Circular 939, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 19p.
Pandit, T. K., & Mookherjee, S. (2016). Evaluation of soil fertility status in old alluvial zone of West Bengal. International Journal of Agricultural Science Research, 6, 1-8.
Parker, F. W., Nelson, W. L., Winters, E., & Miles, I. E. (1951). The broad interpretation and application of soil test information. Agronomy Journal, 43, 105-112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1951.00021962004300030001x
Patil, A. H., Kumbhar, A. V., & Nale, V. N. (2017). GIS-GPS based soil fertility maps of Agriculture College Farm, Kadegaon District, Maharashtra. International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, 7(11), 15426- 15430.
Rajeshwar, M., & Ariffkhan, M. A. (2007). Physico- chemical and nutrients status of forest soils of Nizamabad, India. Asian Journal of Soil Science, 2(2), 44-47.
Ramamoorthy, B., & Bajaj, J. C. (1969). Available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium status of Indian soils. Fertilizer News, 14, 25-36.
Richards, L. A. (Ed.). (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 60. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-195408000-00012
Rout, G. R., & Sahoo, S. (2015). Role of iron in plant growth and metabolism. Reviews in Agricultural Science,3(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.7831/ras.3.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7831/ras.3.1
Sanyal, S. K., & De Datta, S. K. (1991). Chemistry of phosphorus transformations in soil. In: Stewart, B. A. (eds), Advances in Soil Science (vol 16, pp. 1-120). Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3144-8_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3144-8_1
Sharma, B. D., Mukhopadhyay, S. S., & Singh, S. (2002). Distribution of DTPA-extractable micronutrients and their relationship with soil properties in some soils of India. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 50(4), 492–496.
Sharma, L. K., Bali, S. K., & Zaeen, A. A. (2017). A case study of potential reasons of increased soil phosphorus levels in the Northeast United States. Agronomy, 7(4), 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy7040085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy7040085
Singh, M. V. (2009). Micronutrient nutritional problems in soils of India and improvement for human and animal health. Indian Journal of Fertilisers, 5(4), 11–26.
Singh, M. V., & Prasanna, R. (2020). Zinc deficiency in Indian soils and its impact on crop productivity. Indian Journal of Fertilisers, 16(6), 12–24.
Six, J., Conant, R. T., Paul, E. A., & Paustian, K. (2002). Stabilization mechanisms of soil organic matter: Implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant and Soil, 241, 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016125726789 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016125726789
Subbarao, G. V., Ito, O., Sahrawat, K. L., Berry, W. L., Nakahara, K., Ishikawa, T., Watanabe, T., Suenaga, K., Randon, M., & Rao, I. M. (2006). Scope and strategies for regulation of nitrification in agricultural systems. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 25, 303–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680600794232 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680600794232
Subbiah, B. V., & Asija, G. L. (1956). Rapid method for estimation of available nitrogen in soils. Current Science, 25, 259-260.
Tisdale, S. L., Nelson, W. L., & Beaton, J. D. (1993). Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. 5th Edition, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. New York and Colloir Macmillan Publishers, London.
Truptimayee, N., Mishra, A., Saren, S., & Pogula, S. (2016). GPS and GIS based soil fertility maps of Ranital KVK farm and identification of soil related production constraints. International Journal of Agriculture Sciences, 8(51), 2242-2251.
Verma, G., Dhaliwal, S. S., Sharma, V., Singh J., Dhillon, B. S., & Randhawa, H. S. (2023). Soil Fertility Assessment of PAU Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur, Punjab. Agricultural Research Journal, 60(5), 768-774. https://doi.org/10.5958/2395-146X.2023.00109.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5958/2395-146X.2023.00109.6
Walkley, A., & Black, I. A. (1934). Examination of the method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science, 37, 9-38. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-193401000-00003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-193401000-00003
Wang, M., Zheng, Q., Shen, Q., & Guo, S. (2013). The critical role of potassium in plant stress response. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 14, 7370–7390. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14047370 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14047370
Weindorf, D. C., & Zhu, Y. (2010). Spatial variability of soil properties at Capulin volcano, New Mexico, USA: Implications for sampling strategy. Pedosphere, 20(2), 185-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(10)60006-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(10)60006-9
Welch, R. M. (2002). The impact of mineral nutrients in food crops on global human health. Plant and Soil, 247(1), 83-90. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021140122921 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021140122921
Yruela, I. (2005). Copper in plants. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, 17(1), 145-156. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-04202005000100012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-04202005000100012
